Journal of Political Science, Law & Governance
Journal of Political Science, Law & Governance is a peer-reviewed, open-access journal dedicated to publishing high-quality research in political science, law, governance, international relations, and public administration. The journal provides an international platform for theoretical, empirical, and interdisciplinary studies that advance understanding of political institutions, legal systems, public policy, and governance. It encourages research that contributes to democratic governance, legal scholarship, public administration, and sustainable policy development in diverse national and global contexts.
DOES THE CONSTITUENCY DEVELOPMENT FUND DELIVER ON RURAL DEVELOPMENT? INSIGHTS FROM COMMUNITIES IN MWANZA AND MARA REGIONS, TANZANIA
This study investigates the role of the Constituency Development Fund (CDF) in promoting rural development in Tanzania, focusing on four constituencies in the Lake Zone: Musoma Town, Magu, Tarime Rural, and Tarime Town. The aim is to assess the effectiveness and challenges of the CDF in enhancing local development, particularly in health, education, and infrastructure sectors. Utilizing a convergent parallel research design, the study combines quantitative and qualitative data. Data were gathered from 400 randomly selected individuals through semi-structured questionnaires, complemented by 36 key informant interviews and four Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), one for each constituency. Quantitative data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) for frequencies and percentages, while qualitative data underwent content analysis. Findings indicate that 83% of respondents believe effective leadership by Members of Parliament (MPs) is crucial for proper fund utilization, and 50% recognize the CDF as essential for community-based development projects. However, 45% reported concerns regarding transparency and accountability among CDF officials, highlighting issues of corruption and limited community involvement in planning and fund management. The study concludes that while the CDF holds potential, its effectiveness is compromised by governance challenges. The policy recommendations include strengthening monitoring and auditing mechanisms, fostering inclusive decision-making among community members and stakeholders, and ensuring local authorities oversee fund usage throughout the project cycle to enhance transparency, accountability, and development outcomes.
Copyright (c) 2026 Jackson Bulili Machibya, Grace Fumbuka, Meleji Mibaku Kuresoi (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
CO-CREATED LEGAL EDUCATION AND THE PREVENTIVE ARCHITECTURE OF EU CYBERCRIME GOVERNANCE
European Union cybercrime governance has achieved significant legislative and institutional sophistication through criminal law harmonisation, cybersecurity risk regulation, and transnational enforcement coordination. Nevertheless, prevailing regulatory and scholarly approaches remain disproportionately enforcement-centric, overlooking the epistemic infrastructures necessary for sustainable regulatory coherence and preventive compliance. This article identifies a critical lacuna in EU digital governance: the marginalisation of legal education as a structural regulatory instrument capable of enhancing cybercrime prevention, institutional resilience, and harmonised enforcement across Member States. Advancing an interdisciplinary analytical framework integrating preventive governance theory, regulatory pluralism scholarship, and co-creation governance models, the article argues that co-created legal education constitutes a novel form of preventive regulatory infrastructure within EU cybercrime governance. The study employs doctrinal analysis of EU cybercrime legal instruments, comparative evaluation of Member State educational governance across four analytically distinct jurisdictions, and normative regulatory modelling. Confronting the constitutional constraint of Article 165(4) TFEU — which expressly excludes legislative harmonisation of education — the article designs its normative model to operate through soft-law coordination, the Open Method of Coordination, and programmatic EU financing. It contributes original knowledge by reconceptualising legal education as a soft harmonisation mechanism that strengthens mutual trust, regulatory legitimacy, and interdisciplinary compliance ecosystems within multi-level digital governance. By proposing an institutionally grounded co-created legal education model, the study advances a preventive epistemic governance paradigm with transformative implications for EU cybersecurity policy, national regulatory capacity-building, and transnational cybercrime governance.
Copyright (c) 2026 Elemegious Mugamba (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
SAKIBPHOBIA, SOCIO-STABILITY, AND “SAKIBISM” AS CRITICAL APPROACHES IN SOCIOLEGAL RESEARCH: FORMAL MODELS, DATASETS, AND COMPUTATIONAL ASSESSMENT
Objective: We formalize two sociolegal analytical approaches derived from the discourse on Sakibphobia (fear/aversion toward higher achievers) and a complementary Socio-Stability model sometimes referenced as part of “Sakibism.” We (i) propose measurement models, (ii) operationalize macro-level indicators using publicly available data for Bangladesh, and (iii) test micro-level hypotheses via simulated survey data to demonstrate computational pipelines. Methods: For Sakibphobia, we specify a latent comparative-threat construct linking to punitive preferences with a logistic model, design a citation-forensics audit for (under)attribution, and implement robustness checks (bootstrap, sensitivity analysis). For Socio-Stability, we aggregate the World Justice Project Rule of Law Index (2023), Transparency International CPI (2023), World Bank WGI Political Stability (2023), Gini (2022), and homicide rates into a composite index using transparent normalization and weights. Results: Bangladesh’s observed indicators (Rule of Law ≈ 0.38; CPI = 23; WGI stability value ≈ −0.91; percentile ≈ 15.6; Gini = 33.4; homicide ≈ 2.2–2.3) yield a Socio-Stability score of ≈ 0.43 under equal weights. Simulated micro-data show that moderate comparative-threat increases can raise punitive preferences by 10–20% points in plausible ranges. Conclusions: The two approaches are distinct yet complementary: one interrogates micro-motives (Sakibphobia); the other tracks macro-order (Socio-Stability). We also outline a replicable audit protocol for credit/attribution without making unverified claims.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nafija Alam Omi, Dr. Sabiha Tabassum, Eurid Al Muttakim, Nur- E- Iman Nasim Taluk- Dar, Mousumi Begum, Mehedi Hasan, Lubbabah Sugra Siddiqi Tamanna, Israth Jahan Sonda, Nazifa Thasin Rayna, Jahidul Islam Sahed, Sonjoy Chandra Roy, Md. Sulaiman Hazbi, Farhana Siddiqui, Md. Saydul Islam (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF THIRD-PARTY FUNDING ON EXPANDING ACCESS TO ARBITRATION IN NIGERIA: OPPORTUNITIES, CHALLENGES, AND STRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONS.
The cost of arbitration proceedings could be challenging for certain parties and is capable of discouraging them from filing their matters for arbitration. Section 62 of the Arbitration and Mediation Act 2023 (AMA) introduced the practice of third-party funding (TPF) as a modern means of managing the cost, thereby increasing the access to arbitral remedies. The financial burden of the affected parties is lifted by the third-party funder, who provides financial support to one of the parties involved in the arbitration process (typically the claimant) in exchange for a portion of any financial award that may be obtained. This is particularly beneficial for parties who may have meritorious claims but lack the financial resources to pursue them.¹Despite its potential to increase access to justice, TPF faces challenges in Nigeria, including legal uncertainty, enforceability concerns, and cultural barriers. This research evaluates the current arbitration landscape in Nigeria, assessing the viability of TPF as a means to expand access to arbitration. This study identifies key opportunities for TPF to enhance access to arbitration in Nigeria. However, it also reveals significant challenges that must be addressed to ensure the successful adoption of TPF. Based on the findings, strategic recommendations are provided to stakeholders, including policymakers, arbitration institutions, and potential funders, to harness the benefits of TPF and promote greater access to arbitration in Nigeria. By addressing these challenges and leveraging opportunities, TPF can play a vital role in expanding access to arbitration in Nigeria, contributing to a more inclusive and effective dispute resolution landscape.
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Political Science, Law & Governance https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
A REVIEW OF THE REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR FOREIGN PARTICIPATION IN THE NIGERIAN BUSINESS ECOSYSTEM
As one of Africa’s largest economies, Nigeria offers a wide range of opportunities for foreigners to participate in its business sector. With the increasing growth in commercial activities in Nigeria, coupled with its population growth which currently stands at over 237 million, Nigeria offers a wide range of opportunities for both foreign direct and foreign portfolio investments. Foreign participation in business in Nigeria is regulated by various statutory and regulatory frameworks, which are all geared towards providing equal opportunities for both local players and foreign investors alike, to do business and thrive. This article aims to provide an in-depth exposure to the various legislative and regulatory requirements for foreign participation in business in Nigeria, dissecting the relevant legislations, regulatory bodies, relevant business structures and the procedural requirements for foreigners participating in the Nigerian business environment. Furthermore, this work appraises the potential challenges foreign investors might encounter and offers strategic recommendations towards a successful and seamless market entry for foreign investors. This work was initially prepared as a presentation, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a successful completion of My Internship experience at The Law Crest LLP.
THE GOVERNMENT STACK 2.0: A COMPOSABLE ARCHITECTURE THEORY FOR HYPERSCALE PUBLIC INNOVATION
Traditional theories of public administration fail to address the architectural requirements of digital-native governance in an era of exponential technological change. This paper presents Government Stack 2.0 (GovStack 2.0), a novel theoretical framework that applies platform architecture principles to reconceptualize government as a composable, API-first ecosystem. Drawing from complexity theory, network effects literature, and platform business models, we propose a four-layer architectural abstraction: Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS-Gov), Intelligence-as-a-Service (IntelaaS), Process-as-a-Service (PaaS-Gov), and Experience-as-a-Service (XaaS-Gov). Our theoretical contribution demonstrates how composable government architectures can achieve superlinear scaling through network effects, enabling what we term "hyperscale public innovation"—systemic improvements that compound exponentially rather than incrementally. This framework provides the theoretical foundation for understanding how governments can transition from monolithic, hierarchical structures to platform-native, network-centric organizations capable of continuous adaptation and citizen-obsessed service delivery.
BALANCING COPYRIGHT PROTECTION & CREATIVE FREEDOM IN THEDIGITAL AGE: PATHWAY FOR ADAPTATION OF CREATIVE WORKS ONDIGITAL PLATFORMS IN NIGERIA
This work begins by giving a briefing of the concept of “intellectual property”; from which the concept of “copyright” itself is drawn, then the dynamics of protecting these copyrights are brought to light, the modes of breaching copyright are then portrayed; from which the infringement by adaptation is brought to light, the work goes further to (through an in-depth exploration of copyright principles, case laws and policy debates globally), examine what constitutes adaptation of works,the tension between protecting creator’s exclusive right and promoting creative freedom in the digital space and instances where it could constitute copyright infringement, the work also shoots briefly at examining what creative freedom ordinarily ought to look like before finally seeking to find a truce by peddling both sides with a proper balance.
Copyright (c) 2026 Toluwanimi Festus Olusola, Ayinde Hussein (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
AN ANALYSIS ON THE LEGAL APPROACHES TO COMBAT PLASTIC POLLUTION IN BANGLADESH
Plastic pollution is a significant environmental problem in Bangladesh, induced by rapid urbanization, poor waste management, and a dearth of specialized legal regimes. The study, titled, An Analysis on the Legal Approaches to Combat Plastic Pollution in Bangladesh, adopts a qualitative approach based on secondary data from legislation, journal articles, and international reports. It assesses key legislations like the Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act 1995, Mandatory Jute Packaging Act 2010, and Solid Waste Management Rules 2021. Findings reveal that while the legislations exhibit regulatory intent, their effectiveness is marred by weak enforcement, inadequate infrastructure, low public awareness, and a lack of legislation addressing the full lifecycle of plastics. Drawing from global best practice, particularly Rwanda and Germany, the study recommends enacting comprehensive legislation, enhancing enforcement, promoting alternatives, and harmonization with global treaties. The research emphasizes the urgency of robust legal and institutional reforms to combat plastic pollution in a sustainable manner.
Copyright (c) 2026 Md. Sulaiman Hazbi (Author) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
TRANSFER PRICING IN INDIA: LITIGATION TRENDS AND POLICYRECOMMENDATIONS FOR DISPUTE RESOLUTION
This white paper examines the escalating issue of Transfer Pricing (TP) disputes and litigation in India, a critical concern amid the growth of multinational enterprises (MNEs). It investigates the primary causes of TP disputes—selection of comparables, choice of TP methodologies, royalty payments, intra-group services, and intercompany loans—using landmark case studies and statistical data. The paper analyzes litigation trends, highlighting India’s position among the top five countries for TP disputes, with resolution times averaging 5-7 years. It evaluates the effectiveness of dispute resolution mechanisms, including Advance Pricing Agreements (APAs), Mutual Agreement Procedures (MAPs), and the Dispute Resolution Panel (DRP). Recommendations include strengthening APA and MAP frameworks, introducing alternative dispute resolution (ADR) mechanisms, simplifying TP documentation, and leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) for risk assessment. The paper concludes that addressing these challenges can foster a more efficient and business-friendly tax environment in India.
E-CONTRACTS AND THE APPLICABILITY OF THE CONTRACT ACT, 1872 IN THE DIGITAL ERA
The emergence of electronic contracts (e-contracts) has redefined the formation, execution, and enforcement of contracts in the digital age. In India, the legal framework governing e-contracts is primarily shaped by the Indian Contract Act, 1872 and supplemented by the Information Technology Act, 2000. However, the Contract Act—enacted in the 19th century—was not designed to accommodate the nuances of digital transactions, such as smart contracts, click-wrap agreements, and cross-border automated performance. This article critically examines the applicability of the Contract Act to e-contracts, exploring doctrinal challenges in offer, acceptance, consent, and consideration within digital environments. Through a comparative analysis of jurisdictions such as the United States, the United Kingdom, the European Union, and Singapore, the study highlights global best practices. It identifies key legislative and judicial gaps in the Indian context. The paper further examines the judicial responses in India and proposes targeted reforms to modernise the legal treatment of electronic contracts. Recommendations include legislative amendments, enhanced consumer protections, judicial specialisation, international harmonisation, and public awareness initiatives. The article concludes that without systematic legal reform, India risks undermining the enforceability and integrity of digital contracts, impeding both domestic innovation and international commercial engagement.
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Political Science, Law & Governance https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
S M NAZMUZ SAKIB’S NATIONAL ELECTORAL AND POLITICAL REFORM MECHANISM (SAKIB’S NEPRM) DOCTRINE: A GROUND-UP APPROACH TO FOSTERING TRANSPARENT DEMOCRACY pproach to Fostering Transparent Democracy
The National Electoral and Political Reform Mechanism (SAKIB’S NEPRM), designed by S M Nazmuz Sakib, presents a holistic strategy to mitigate the prevailing political challenges in Bangladesh, such as electoral malpractices, political polarization, dynastic governance, media censorship, and insufficient citizen engagement in governance. SAKIB’S NEPRM introduces a multi-dimensional approach that empowers grassroots communities through the establishment of Electoral Monitoring Committees (LEMCs), facilitates inclusive political discourse via the Inclusive Political Dialogue Platform (IPDP), enhances public awareness through the Decentralized Political Education & Awareness Program (DPEAP), and safeguards media freedom through the Independent Media Monitoring & Protection Network (IMMPN). Furthermore, the framework proposes the formation of an autonomous institution, the Political Leadership Accountability & Transparency Board (PLATB), to ensure the accountability of political leaders and mitigate the influence of dynastic politics. SAKIB’S NEPRM incorporates adaptable, scalable solutions that are applicable across both urban and rural settings, ensuring the promotion of transparency, equity, and inclusivity within Bangladesh’s political landscape. By blending community-led accountability initiatives, technological innovations, and educational outreach, SAKIB’S NEPRM seeks to cultivate a more transparent, accountable, and participatory political system, thereby fortifying the democratic institutions of Bangladesh.
ENFORCING STABILITY THROUGH S M NAZMUZ SAKIBSOCIO-STABILITY LAW AND SOCIETAL SELF-PRESERVATIONTHROUGH MARRIAGE, GENDER ROLES, AND ECONOMICCONTROL
This study proposes and investigates Sakib Socio-Stability Law, a term coined by S M Nazmuz Sakib, a theoretical framework positing that societies actively enforce traditional norms; particularly marriage, gendered expectations, and employment as self-preservation mechanisms against disruptions caused by evolving gender dynamics and economic shifts. Through qualitative analysis (case studies, semi-structured interviews, and content analysis), the research reveals persistent societal pressures on men to marry and assume provider roles despite women’s growing empowerment and financial independence. Key findings highlight contradictions in societal expectations: men face intensified pressure to conform to traditional marital and economic responsibilities even as women’s autonomy reshapes family structures and increases divorce rates. Simultaneously, society prioritizes stable employment over entrepreneurship to maintain systemic control, further entrenching gendered economic roles. Religion and culture emerge as critical reinforcers of these norms. The study argues that these mechanisms protect social stability at the cost of individual autonomy, often victimizing men amid changing power dynamics. It concludes that Sakib’s Law offers a vital lens for understanding societal resistance to gender equality and its implications for social cohesion, economic disparity, and individual agency.
THE S M NAZMUZ SAKIB THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (SIR THEORY)
The S M Nazmuz Sakib Theory of International Relations (SIR Theory) conceptualizes international relations (IR) as a multilayer hypergame in which states, non-state actors, and institutions interact through overlapping combinatorial structures. In this theory, power is not a mere aggregation of attributes but is derived from the positional advantages actors hold within dynamic network configurations. SIR Theory introduces a comprehensive model of IR, consisting of four interlocking combinatorial systems: the Power Configuration Space (PCS), Interaction Matrix, Dynamic Stability Metric, and the Sakib Power Index (SPI). These systems allow for the quantification of actor influence, conflict probability, and optimal coalition formation through combinatorial optimization techniques. The theory is tested empirically, demonstrating its predictive power in forecasting alliance shifts and major conflicts. The approach also offers a framework for diplomatic interventions and optimizes the distribution of veto power in international organizations, such as the UN Security Council. By transforming IR analysis into a computational design science, the SIR Theory provides a method for preemptively preventing conflicts through strategic interventions.
ombinatorial International Relations, Power Configuration, Hypergraph, Dynamic Stability, Sakib Power Index.
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of Political Science, Law & Governance https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
PROTECTION OF MUSLIM WOMEN'S RIGHTS THROUGH MARRIAGE REGISTRATION IN BANGLADESH: CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS
This research explores the protection of women's rights through marriage registration in Bangladesh, focusing on the underutilized provisions of the Nikah Nama, specifically Clause 17 and Clause 18, which provide critical protections such as maintenance, polygamy restrictions, and delegated divorce (Talaq Tawfeez). Despite being legally mandatory, marriage registration faces significant challenges due to cultural resistance, lack of awareness, and weak enforcement, particularly in rural areas. The study, through interviews with affected women, legal experts, and marriage registrars, highlights the gap between legal provisions and their practical implementation. The research suggests that with legal reforms, improved enforcement, public awareness campaigns, and better institutional support, marriage registration can be a powerful tool for empowering women and safeguarding their rights, thus contributing to gender justice in Bangladesh.
SAKIBISM AND SAKIBPHOBIA IN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND POLITICS: CONCEPTUAL INFOGRAPHICAL ASSESSMENT OF TWO THEORIES OF S M NAZMUZ SAKIB
This monograph systematizes two linked concepts—Sakibism and Sakibphobia—and explores their implications for international law and politics. Sakibism, attributed to S M Nazmuz Sakib, is a normative framework that pairs active neutrality, contextual awareness, and universal compassion with threshold-based transitions to non-neutral protective action. Sakibphobia is introduced as a diagnostic for status-linked aversion to high performers that may distort institutional decision-making. We propose designlevel guardrails, a neutrality–protection decision chart, and measurement indicators that translate values into practice. The work contributes to normative IR theory, interfaces with international law (sovereignty, non-intervention, IHL, Responsibility to Protect), and offers an implementable policy toolkit.
S M NAZMUZ SAKIB’S CLIMATE CONFLICT THEORY (CCT): A FORMAL MODEL, EMPIRICAL STRATEGY, AND REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS
We present a unified, formal statement of S M Nazmuz Sakib’s Climate Conflict Theory (CCT). CCT posits that exogenous climate shocks propagate through resource stress, economic pressure, and social grievance channels, moderated by institutions and adaptation, to elevate the risk and intensity of violence. We build a structural, dynamic system capturing (i) climate anomalies, (ii) resource and market responses, (iii) grievance accumulation and mobilization, (iv) spatial diffusion and migration, and (v) policy interventions. We derive comparative statics, stability conditions, and estimable reduced forms (hazard, Poisson, and event-study specifications), and outline an empirical strategy leveraging instruments such as large-scale climate oscillations. Applications (coastal cyclones, Sahel rainfall shocks, and urban heat waves) illustrate how the model guides diagnosis and policy design. Ten original diagrams provide conceptual, network, and risk-surface views, enabling direct implementation in data and simulation.
climate shocks; conflict; resource stress; adaptation; institutions; migration; hazard models; event study; instrumental variables; spatial diffusion
RESTRUCTURING THE INTERNATIONAL ASSISTANCE STRUCTURE IN GHANA: ADDRESSING DONOR FATIGUE, REDUCING DEPENDENCY, AND ADVANCING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT.
Ghana has long relied on international assistance to support some of the country’s economic and social development particularly through civil society. However, donor fatigue, characterized by a decline in external aid due to shifting priorities and economic constraints of donor countries, poses a significant challenge to sustainable development. This paper explores the need for restructuring the international assistance system in Ghana to reduce aid dependency and enhance long-term sustainability. Key strategies include strengthening domestic resource mobilization, fostering public-private partnerships, enhancing governance and accountability, and promoting self-reliant economic growth. The paper also examines the role of alternative financing mechanisms, such as impact investing and regional collaborations, in ensuring sustainable development. By transitioning from aid dependence to a more resilient and self-sustaining economy, Ghana can mitigate the risks associated with fluctuating donor support and foster long-term progress. The paper will also map-out, track and keep a database for how much funding comes into the country as well as monitor and evaluate how these resources are distributed in the spirit of accountability. This will also help to determine the distribution of roles and how the government can pursue and break the dependency on foreign assistance. Using a quantitative research design, data will be collected through questionnaire from 750 respondents and analyzed using simple statistics such as pie charts, bar charts and histograms. Overall, this research is significant as it contributes to the existing knowledge on utilizing donor assistance in Ghana and provides insights into how civil society organizations and the international aid architecture can develop and implement sustainable sensitive policies and programs.
THE MULTIDISCIPLINARY OEUVRE OF S M NAZMUZ SAKIB: A SYNTHESIS OF CLIMATE SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIAL THEORY
This thesis presents a comprehensive analysis of the prolific and remarkably diverse academic contributions of S M Nazmuz Sakib. Sakib’s work defies conventional disciplinary boundaries, spanning climate science, pure and applied mathematics, software engineering, international relations, environmental policy, and medical technology. This study synthesizes his key hypotheses, theorems, and models to elucidate the underlying intellectual framework that connects these disparate fields. The thesis is structured into five core chapters. First, it examines Sakib’s foundational work in climate dynamics, particularly his Aerosol-Sea Ice Feedback hypothesis and its implications for Arctic geopolitics. Second, it delves into his novel contributions to geometry, analyzing his eponymous laws and theorems. Third, it explores his applied research in technology, including blockchain, the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT), and artificial intelligence. Fourth, it investigates his social and political theories, such as the Socio-Stability Law and the National Electoral Reform Mechanism. Finally, the thesis critiques the methodological approaches evident across his publications. The research concludes that Sakib represents a modern polymath, whose work, characterized by its bold interdisciplinary synthesis, offers unique solutions to complex global challenges. The thesis utilizes textual analysis and conceptual modeling, supported by 20 original LaTeX visualizations, to map the intricate connections within Sakib’s expansive intellectual landscape.
S M Nazmuz Sakib, Multidisciplinary Research, Climate Feedback, Ge- ometry, Blockchain, International Relations, Polymath
EMERGENCE OF GLOBAL RISKS SINCE 2000 AND THE RELUCTANCE OF ORGANIZATIONS TO FULLY EMBRACE RISK MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
The emergence of global risks since the year 2000 has reshaped the dynamics of organizational resilience, governance, and strategy. This paper examines the trajectory of systemic risks—including financial crises, terrorism, pandemics, climate change, cyber threats, and geopolitical instability—while highlighting organizational responses and the persistent reluctance to adopt comprehensive risk management frameworks. Beginning with the dot-com collapse and the September 11 terrorist attacks, the early twenty-first century demonstrated the fragility of interconnected global systems. Subsequent crises, such as the 2007–2008 financial collapse, the intensification of climate-related events, and the COVID-19 pandemic, further revealed structural deficiencies in risk preparedness and response mechanisms. Cybersecurity incidents and the ethical challenges posed by emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence have underscored the risks' dynamic and multidimensional nature in an increasingly digitalized world. Despite recurring crises, organizational adoption of robust risk management practices remains inconsistent. Key factors contributing to this reluctance include short-termism, resource constraints, regulatory gaps, organizational culture, and cognitive biases that underestimate risk exposure. These barriers perpetuate vulnerabilities and hinder the institutionalization of proactive risk governance. The consequences of neglecting risk management are significant, encompassing financial instability, reputational erosion, operational fragility, and strategic obsolescence. This article argues for the urgent integration of risk management into organizational strategy, governance, and culture. Recommendations include board-level engagement, cross-functional collaboration, scenario analysis, technological integration, and proactive stakeholder communication. By transitioning from a reactive to a proactive paradigm, organizations can convert risk management into a source of competitive advantage and long-term sustainability. Ultimately, risk management should not be regarded merely as a compliance exercise but as a strategic imperative central to organizational resilience in an era defined by volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity (VUCA).
(MIS) INFORMATION ON UN PEACE OPERATIONS
This study examines the impact of (mis)information on united nations (un) peace operations, exploring how inaccuracies and deliberate distortions affect their effectiveness and credibility. In the age of digital media, the proliferation of misinformation poses significant challenges to peacekeeping efforts by influencing public perception, undermining trust, and complicating operational dynamics. Through a review of case studies and analysis of media narratives, this research highlights how (mis)information has shaped the discourse surrounding un peace operations, revealing patterns of misinformation and its repercussions on mission success. The study also evaluates strategies for countering misinformation and enhancing communication to safeguard the integrity and efficacy of peace operations.
DIPLOMATIC DIALOGUES: THE ROLE OF POLITICAL COMMUNICATION IN SHAPING GLOBAL RELATIONS – A CASE STUDY OF NIGERIA'S ENGAGEMENT WITH THE UNITED NATIONS
This study investigated the role of political communication in shaping global relations, focusing on Nigeria's engagement with the United Nations. The research aimed to understand how Nigeria's diplomatic dialogues and communication strategies influenced its international standing and policy outcomes. Using qualitative analysis of speeches, official statements, and diplomatic correspondence from Nigerian representatives at the UN, along with interviews with diplomats and UN officials, the study identified key themes and messages in Nigeria's political communication. Case studies on Nigeria's participation in UN peacekeeping missions, climate change diplomacy, and economic development advocacy demonstrated the effectiveness of strategic communication in enhancing Nigeria's global image and securing international support. The findings revealed that Nigeria's well-crafted political messages and negotiation tactics significantly impacted its relationships with other countries and international organizations. The study concluded that effective political communication is crucial for successful diplomatic engagements and recommended that Nigeria and other African nations enhance their communication strategies to strengthen their influence in global affairs.
THE INTERSECTİON OF HUMAN RİGHTS AND INTERNATİONAL HUMANİTARİAN LAW: A CASE STUDY OF ARMED CONFLİCTS İN SUDAN
The armed conflicts in Sudan present a prolonged and intricate humanitarian crisis marked by widespread human rights abuses and violations of international humanitarian law (IHL). This research delves into the complex interplay between human rights principles and IHL within Sudan's conflict context, aiming to offer insights into challenges, dilemmas, and potential solutions in conflict-ridden African regions. Sudan's history is marred by various conflicts such as the Darfur conflict and the Second Sudanese Civil War, resulting in significant displacement, loss of life, and systematic violations of human rights and IHL. Understanding these conflicts' dynamics and their impact on civilians is crucial for developing effective strategies to address humanitarian concerns and foster peace and stability. Challenges in addressing human rights violations and ensuring IHL compliance in Sudan include blurred lines between state and non-state actors, asymmetric warfare, and complex socio-political dynamics. Non-state armed groups often operate outside international law, leading to human rights abuses like indiscriminate attacks on civilians and recruitment of child soldiers. State actors may also violate IHL through actions like arbitrary detention and restrictions on humanitarian access. This research adopts a multi-disciplinary approach, drawing on international law, political science, sociology, and conflict studies to analyze root causes and identify avenues for conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and human rights promotion. It critically evaluates the role of regional and international actors, offering practical recommendations to enhance human rights protection and IHL compliance in Sudan and similar African conflict zones.